Religious Diversity and the Digital Economy: Legal–Academic Pathways to Harmonize Sharia and International Law
Keywords:
Digital economy, Sharia law, Interfaith law and society, Consumer protection, Religious data privacy, Cross-border e-contractsAbstract
The rapid expansion of the digital economy has created new opportunities for commerce, communication, and innovation, but it has also raised complex legal and ethical challenges with significant implications for religious communities. Fraudulent halal certifications, algorithmic bias against devotional content, misinformation campaigns that inflame interfaith tensions, and fintech models that risk violating prohibitions on riba, gharar, and maisir illustrate how digital governance intersects with both Sharia principles and international legal standards. This article examines five key areas where these frameworks converge and diverge: consumer protection, privacy of religious data, online speech and blasphemy-adjacent harms, fintech ethics, and cross-border e-contract recognition. Employing a normative–comparative method, it analyzes statutory instruments, international guidelines, and Sharia jurisprudence to identify points of compatibility and conflict. The findings show broad consensus on prohibiting fraud, ensuring transparency, and protecting dignity, but persistent divergences on religious sensitivities in advertising, speech boundaries, and financial design. To address these tensions, the article proposes a harmonization roadmap: soft-law guidance for platforms, model clauses for e-contracts, judicial canons grounded in maqāṣid al-sharīʿah and human rights, regulatory sandboxes for Sharia-compliant fintech, academic partnerships for training and audits, and monitoring metrics for accountability. In doing so, it offers a framework for transforming the digital marketplace into a site of fairness, inclusivity, and constructive interfaith dialogue.
References
H. M. R. Abid, S. Aslam, N. Alwan, and N. Khalid, “Current Readiness on Food Fraud Risk Mitigation in Developing Countries: A Review,” Agriculture & Food Security 14, no. 9 (2025), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-025-00528-1.
R. Abaidoo and co-authors, “Regulatory Sandbox System and Its Impact on Financial Efficiency,” Applied Economics 57 (2025): 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2025.2495886.
H. M. Aji, M. Md Husin, A. K. Othman, A. Hidayat, and W. E. Wan Rashid, “Religious-Based Ethics and Buy-Now-Pay-Later Re-Usage Intention Among Muslim Consumers in Indonesia and Malaysia: A Commitment–Trust Theory Perspective,” Cogent Business & Management 11, no. 1 (2024): 2363441, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2363441.
A. N. Ahmad, U. F. U. Z. Abidin, M. Othman, and R. A. Rahman, “Overview of the Halal Food Control System in Malaysia,” Food Control 90 (2018): 352–363, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.02.035.
Z. S. Ahmed, “Contestations of Internet Governance and Digital Authoritarianism in Pakistan,” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society (2024), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-024-09493-2.
S. Akter et al., “Algorithmic Bias in Machine Learning-Based Marketing Models,” Journal of Business Research 144 (2022): 201–216, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.01.083.
F. Ali, K. Bouzoubaa, F. Gelli, B. Hamzi, and S. Khan, “Islamic Ethics and AI: An Evaluation of Existing Approaches to AI Using Trusteeship Ethics,” Philosophy & Technology 38 (2025): 120, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-025-00922-4.
M. Ali, P. Sapiezynski, M. Bogen, A. Korolova, A. Mislove, and A. Rieke, “Discrimination Through Optimization: How Facebook’s Ad Delivery Can Lead to Biased Outcomes,” Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 3, CSCW (2019): Article 199, https://doi.org/10.1145/3359301.
M. A. Alkhedhairy, “Balancing Privacy and Risk: A Critical Analysis of Personal Data Use as Governed by Saudi Insurance Law,” Laws 14, no. 4 (2025): 47, https://doi.org/10.3390/laws14040047.
N. Alkiviadou, “The Legal Regulation of Hate Speech: The International and European Frameworks,” Politička Misao 55, no. 4 (2018): 203–229, https://doi.org/10.20901/pm.55.4.08.
M. S. Al-Zaman, “Social Media Users’ Engagement with Religious Misinformation: An Exploratory Sequential Mixed-Methods Analysis,” Emerging Media (2024), https://doi.org/10.1177/27523543241257715.
M. S. Al-Zaman and M. Y. Alimi, “Islam, Religious Confrontation and Hoaxes in the Digital Public Sphere: Comparison of Bangladesh and Indonesia,” Komunitas: International Journal of Indonesian Society and Culture 13, no. 2 (2023), https://doi.org/10.15294/komunitas.v13i2.27223.
C. Are, “‘Dysfunctional’ Appeals and Failures of Algorithmic Justice in Instagram and TikTok Content Moderation,” Information, Communication & Society (2024), https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2024.2396621.
S. Aust and H. Hamelmann, “GDPR, Fundamental Rights, and the Digital Ecosystem: Mapping the Role of Values in European AI Governance,” Computers in Human Behavior 133 (2022): 107280, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107280.
A. Awwad, “Digital Evidence in Forensic Accounting—A Study in Saudi Legislation,” Cogent Business & Management 12, no. 1 (2025): 2522958, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2025.2522958.
S. Ayoub, “The Egyptian State as a Mujtahid: Law and Religion in the Jurisprudence of the Egyptian Supreme Constitutional Court,” Arab Law Quarterly 36, nos. 4–5 (2022): 391–418, https://doi.org/10.1163/15730255-bja10088.
Z. Aydın and O. Yardımcı, “Regulatory Sandboxes and Pilot Projects: Trials, Regulations, and Insights in Energy Transition,” Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 56 (2024): 101792, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2024.101792.
C. Batubara, M. K. Rokan, M. F. Bin Abdul Manaf, S. Sukiati, and I. Harahap, “Realizing Justice and Maṣlaḥah in E-Commerce: Fiqh Muʿāmalah Insights and Challenges in Malaysia and Indonesia,” Juris (Jurnal Ilmiah Syariah) 23, no. 2 (2024): 253–267, https://doi.org/10.31958/juris.v23i2.12356.
R. Becker et al., “Purpose Definition as a Crucial Step for Determining the Legal Basis under the GDPR: Implications for Scientific Research,” Journal of Law and the Biosciences 11, no. 1 (2024): lsae001, https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsae001.
B. M. Berens et al., “Cookie Disclaimers: Dark Patterns and Lack of Transparency,” Computers & Security 136 (2024): 103507, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2023.103507.
E. Bernheim, D. Namian, S. Lambert, and A. Thibault, “Collective Advocacy in the Age of Neoliberalism: Getting Political in an Interdisciplinary Law Clinic,” International Journal of Clinical Legal Education 32, no. 2 (2025): 20–36, http://dx.doi.org/10.19164/ijcle.v32i2.1690.
J. Biswas et al., “The Essentials of AI for Life and Society: An AI Literacy Course for the University Community,” arXiv (2025), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2501.07392.
G. Borz, E. Dinas, and L. Rori, “The EU Soft Regulation of Digital Campaigning,” Policy Studies 45, no. 5 (2024): 817–841, https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2024.2302448.
T. M. Bueno, “The Brussels Effect in Brazil: Analysing the Impact of the Digital Services Act,” Telecommunications Policy 48 (2024): 102757, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2024.102757.
H. A. Campbell, “Looking Backwards and Forwards at the Study of Digital Religion,” Religious Studies Review 50, no. 1 (2024): 83–87, https://doi.org/10.1111/rsr.17062.
N. Carstens, “Digitalisation Labs: A New Arena for Policy Design in German Multilevel Governance,” German Politics 30, no. 2 (2021): 249–266, https://doi.org/10.1080/09644008.2021.1887851.
M. C. Cakmak, N. Agarwal, and R. Oni, “The Bias Beneath: Analyzing Drift in YouTube’s Algorithmic Recommendations,” Social Network Analysis and Mining 14 (2024): 171, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-024-01343-5.
Z. Chen, “Jurisdiction and Choice of Law Rules over Electronic Contracts,” Journal of Private International Law (2022), https://doi.org/10.1177/1023263X221090352.
D. Cumming, L. Hornuf, M. Karami, and D. Schweizer, “Disentangling Crowdfunding from Fraudfunding,” Journal of Business Ethics 182, no. 4 (2023): 1103–1128, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04942-w.
B. Custers and H. Vrabec, “Tell Me Something New: Data Subject Rights Applied to Inferred Data and Profiles,” Computer Law & Security Review 52 (2024): 105956, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.105956.
A. M. Davani, M. Atari, B. Kennedy, and M. Dehghani, “Hate Speech Classifiers Learn Normative Social Stereotypes,” Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics 11 (2023): 300–319, https://doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00550.
S. P. de Souza and L. Taylor, “Rebooting the Global Consensus: Norm Entrepreneurship, Data Governance and the Inalienability of Digital Bodies,” Big Data & Society 12, no. 2 (2025), https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517251330191.
A. Der Gregorian, A. Rabanal, and R. Staudt, “Designing Digital Law Clinics for Student Success,” in Justice in Action: Enhancing Legal Education through Clinical Training, 150–168 (Cham: Springer, 2023).
M. Eliantonio and Y. Marique, “Comparative Administrative Law in Europe: State-of-the-Art Overview and Research Agenda,” Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law 30, no. 6 (2023): 689–704, https://doi.org/10.1177/1023263X241252105.
R. M. Ellahi, L. C. Wood, M. Khan, and A. E.-D. A. Bekhit, “Integrity Challenges in Halal Meat Supply Chain: Potential Industry 4.0 Technologies as Catalysts for Resolution,” Foods 14, no. 7 (2025): 1135, https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14071135.
M. E. H. El Maknouzi, I. M. Jadalhaq, I. E. Abdulhay, and E. M. Alqodsi, “Islamic Commercial Arbitration and Private International Law: Mapping Controversies and Exploring Pathways Toward Greater Coordination,” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 10 (2023): 523, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02031-z.
A. H. Elsayed et al., “The Impact of FinTech Technology on Financial Stability of the UAE,” Heliyon 10, no. 19 (2024): e38255, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e38255.
European Law Institute, European Standards of Judicial Independence (ELI Mt Scopus Report) (2024).
Fauzul Hanif Noor Athief et al., “Profit-Loss Sharing Principle in the Islamic Finance Industry: Current Pattern and Future Direction,” IJAAS 11, no. 9 (2024): 23–35, https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2024.09.004.
R. R. Fernández, “Evaluation of Trust Service and Software Product Regimes for Zero-Knowledge Proof Development under eIDAS 2.0,” Computer Law & Security Review 53 (2024): 105968, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.105968.
R. R. Fernández, A. Muñoz, and E. Verdú, “Evaluation of Trust Service and Software Product Regimes for Zero-Knowledge eIDAS 2.0,” Computer Law & Security Review 54 (2024): 105993, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.105993.
H. Fitriansyah and S. Aisyah, “Prohibited Contracts and Sharia Economic Law: Review of Counterfeit Goods Practices on E-Commerce Platforms,” Aluqud: Mabahits Al-Uqud 1, no. 2 (2024): Article 1004, https://doi.org/10.15575/mau.v1i2.1004.
M. Florea, “Withdrawal of Consent for Processing Personal Data in Biomedical Research,” International Data Privacy Law 13, no. 2 (2023): 107–123, https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipad008.
R. Y. Gao, “The Diffusion of a U.S. Trade-Based Approach to International Personal Data Transfers and Its Implications for National Data Privacy Regulations,” International Data Privacy Law 14, no. 4 (2024): 352–364, https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipae016.
B. Ghalia, M. Amanullah, L. Zakariyah, and S. M. Muhsin, “Medical Ethics in the Light of Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah: A Case Study of Medical Confidentiality,” Intellectual Discourse 26, no. 1 (2018): 133–160, https://doi.org/10.31436/id.v26i1.1118.
T. Gillespie, “Content Moderation, AI, and the Question of Scale,” Big Data & Society 7, no. 2 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951720943234.
R. Gorwa, R. Binns, and C. Katzenbach, “Algorithmic Content Moderation: Technical and Political Challenges in the Automation of Platform Governance,” Big Data & Society 7, no. 1 (2020): 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951719897945.
D. Gritsenko, “Advancing UN Digital Cooperation: Lessons from Environmental Policy and Governance,” World Development 173 (2024): 106392, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106392.
L. Gumbo and U. A. K. Chude-Okonkwo, “Regulatory Sandbox as a Frontier for Innovation and Sustainability: A Systematic Review,” Cogent Business & Management 12, no. 1 (2025): 2510555, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2025.2510555.
M. Habibulloh, “Digital Governance and the Right to Privacy: A Comparative Analysis of AI Regulation in Southeast Asia and the European Union,” Journal of Law, Policy and Global Development 1, no. 1 (2025), https://doi.org/10.71305/jlpgd.v1i1.333.
A. Häuselmann and B. Custers, “Substantive Fairness in the GDPR: Fairness Elements for Article 5(1)(a) GDPR,” Computer Law & Security Review 52 (2024): 105942, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.105942.
B. Hallinan, C. J. Reynolds, Y. Kuperberg, and O. Rothenstein, “Aspirational Platform Governance: How Creators Legitimise Content Moderation through Accusations of Bias,” Internet Policy Review 14, no. 1 (2025), https://doi.org/10.14763/2025.1.1829.
M. A. Hayat, “Privacy and Islam: From the Qur’an to Data Protection in Pakistan,” Information & Communications Technology Law 16, no. 2 (2007): 137–148, https://doi.org/10.1080/13600830701532043.
Y. He, “Artificial Intelligence and Socioeconomic Forces: Transforming the Landscape of Religion,” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 11, no. 1 (2024): 602, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03137-8.
M. A. Helfand, “Religious Arbitration and the New Multiculturalism: Negotiating Conflicting Legal Orders,” Yale Law Journal 124 (2015): 2994–3032.
R. Hosny and M. A. Nasef, “Lexical Algorithmic Resistance: Tactics of Deceiving Arabic Content Moderation Algorithms on Facebook,” Big Data & Society 12, no. 2 (2025), https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517251318277.
R. A. Hunt et al., “Digital Battlegrounds: The Power Dynamics and Governance of Contemporary Platforms,” Academy of Management Annals (2024), https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2022.0188.
S. Husain, N. P. Ayoub, and M. Hassmann, “Legal Pluralism in Contemporary Societies: Dynamics of Interaction Between Islamic Law and Secular Civil Law,” Syariat: Jurnal Hukum dan Peradilan 15, no. 1 (2024): 11, https://doi.org/10.35335/cfb3wk76.
M. Husovec, “The Digital Services Act’s Red Line: What the Commission Cannot Do,” Journal of Cyber Policy 9, no. 3 (2024): 351–369, https://doi.org/10.1080/17577632.2024.2362483.
S. Jhaver, S. Frey, and A. Zhang, “Decentralizing Platform Power: A Design Space of Multi-Level Governance in Online Social Platforms,” Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 5, CSCW1 (2021): 1–23, https://doi.org/10.1145/3449173.
M. Kalliny, S. Ghanem, M. Shaner, B. Boyle, and B. Mueller, “Capitalizing on Faith: A Cross-Cultural Examination of Consumer Responses to the Use of Religious Symbols in Advertising,” Journal of Global Marketing 33, no. 3 (2020): 158–176, https://doi.org/10.1080/08911762.2019.1669760.
A. B. Kazmi, “Pakistan’s Judicial Engagement with International Refugee Law,” International Journal of Refugee Law 36, no. 4 (2024): 397–418, https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eeaf001.
S. Kim, S. Lessmann, G. Andreeva, and M. Rovatsos, “Fair Models in Credit: Intersectional Discrimination and the Amplification of Inequity,” Finance Research Letters 43 (2023): 101979.
E. R. Kismawadi, “Islamic Fintech: Navigating the Regulatory Framework and Promoting Financial Inclusion in GCC Countries,” Journal of Islamic Marketing 16, no. 6 (2025): 1742–1769, https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-02-2023-0061.
A. Koshiyama et al., “Towards Algorithm Auditing: Managing Legal, Ethical and Technological Risks of AI, ML and Associated Algorithms,” Royal Society Open Science 11, no. 5 (2024): 230859, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.230859.
M. Kosinski, D. Stillwell, and T. Graepel, “Private Traits and Attributes Are Predictable from Digital Records of Human Behavior,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 15 (2013): 5802–5805, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1218772110.
P. Kroczek, “Data Protection and Religious Freedom in the EU in the Context of the Catholic Church in Poland,” Religions 16, no. 4 (2025): 420, https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040420.
T. Kuru, “Lawfulness of the Mass Processing of Publicly Accessible Online Data to Train Large Language Models,” International Data Privacy Law 14, no. 4 (2024): 326–339, https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipae013.
S. Kunhibava, A. Muneeza, Z. Mustapha, M. E. Karim, and A. A. Sa’ad, “Selected Issues in the Use of RegTech in the Islamic and Conventional Financial Markets,” Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research (2023), https://doi.org/10.1108/JIABR-03-2022-0069.
M. Lau, “Print, Publish, Punish: The Qur’an and the Law from Colonial India to Contemporary Pakistan,” Arab Law Quarterly 38, no. 4 (2024): 371–429, https://doi.org/10.1163/15730255-bja10164.
P. Leerssen, “An End to Shadow Banning? Transparency Rights in the Digital Services Act Between Content Moderation and Curation,” Computer Law & Security Review 48 (2023): 105790, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2023.105790.
S. Maniam, “Determinants of Islamic Fintech Adoption: A Systematic Literature Review,” Journal of Islamic Marketing 15, no. 11 (2024): 2916–2936, https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-11-2023-0373.
M. Mariana, “Principles of Islamic Business Ethics in Online Business: A Sharia Compliance Framework and Scorecard for E-Commerce Platforms,” ShariaBiz International Journal of Economics & Business (2024), https://doi.org/10.36679/q1nj2a57.
A. Mardatillah, S. Yuliani, M. M. Ghani, and R. Rosmayani, “Digital Marketing Strategy Across Cultures: Algorithmic Bias, Local Media, MSME Performance, Indonesia & Malaysia,” International Journal of Innovative Research and Scientific Studies 8, no. 2 (2025): 4091–4101, https://doi.org/10.53894/ijirss.v8i2.6233.
A. Meero, “Islamic vs. Conventional Banking in the Age of FinTech and AI: Evolving Business Models, Efficiency, and Stability (2020–2024),” International Journal of Financial Studies 13, no. 3 (2025): 148, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijfs13030148.
A.-K. Meßmer and M. Degeling, “Auditing Recommender Systems—Putting the DSA into Practice with a Risk-Scenario-Based Approach,” arXiv (2023), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.04556.
A. K. Mohamad and A. Trakic, “Islamic Banking Dispute Resolution: The Experience of Malaysia and Indonesia,” IIUM Law Journal 30, suppl. 2 (2022): 1–28, https://doi.org/10.31436/iiumlj.v30iS2.771.
N. Mohd Haridan, A. F. Sheikh Hassan, and S. Mohammed Shah, “External Shariah Auditing in Islamic Banks: What Do Internal Auditors Think?” Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research (2024), https://doi.org/10.1108/JIABR-08-2023-0275.
R. Mühlhoff and H. Ruschemeier, “Updating Purpose Limitation for AI: A Normative Approach from Law and Philosophy,” International Journal of Law and Information Technology 33 (2025): eaaf003, https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlit/eaaf003.
Y. T. Muryanto, “The Urgency of Sharia Compliance Regulations for Islamic FinTechs: A Comparative Study of Indonesia, Malaysia and the United Kingdom,” Journal of Financial Crime 30, no. 5 (2022): 1264–1278, https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-05-2022-0099.
Z. Nabi, “Resistance Censorship Is Futile,” First Monday 19, no. 11 (2014), https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v19i11.5525.
D. H. Nihayah, “The Growth of Islamic Fintech: Opportunities and Challenges in the Digital Era,” Murabahah: Journal of Islamic Economics 1, no. 1 (2025): 55–63.
N. Nurlinda, M. Dayyan, and Z. Daud, “Regulation of the Minister of Trade No. 31 of 2023 on E-Commerce Business on the TikTok Platform: An Analysis of Sharia Economic Law,” Al-Ḥiwālah: Jurnal Hukum Ekonomi Syariah 3, no. 2 (2024), https://doi.org/10.47766/al-hiwalah.v3i2.4790.
OECD, OECD Online Dispute Resolution Framework (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2024).
OHCHR, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief: Safeguarding Freedom of Religion or Belief for the Successful Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/75/385) (New York: United Nations, 2020).
C. S. A. Okoli, “Implied Jurisdiction Agreements in International Commercial Contracts,” Journal of Private International Law (2023), https://doi.org/10.1080/17441048.2023.2294615.
C. S. A. Okoli and A. Yekini, “Implied Jurisdiction Agreements in International Commercial Contracts: A Global Comparative Perspective,” Journal of Private International Law 19, no. 3 (2024): 321–361, https://doi.org/10.1080/17441048.2023.2294615.
D. Ozkul, “Artificial Intelligence and Ethnic, Religious, and Gender-Based Discrimination,” Social Inclusion 12 (2024): Article 8942, https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v12.8942.
D. Pálfi, “Internal Dispute Resolution Systems: Do High Promises Come with Higher Expectations?” Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies (Acta Juridica Hungarica) 64, no. 3 (2024): 391–412, https://doi.org/10.1556/2052.2023.00469.
S. Park and Y. Sang, “The Changing Role of Nation States in Online Content Governance: A Case of Google’s Handling of Government Removal Requests,” Policy & Internet 15, no. 3 (2023): 351–369, https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.342.
E. Psychogiopoulou, “Judicial Dialogue in Social Media Cases in Europe: Exploring the Role of Peers in Judicial Adjudication,” German Law Journal 22, no. 6 (2021): 915–935, https://doi.org/10.1017/glj.2021.51.
Y. Pugin and F. Thalmann, “Algorithmic (In)Tolerance: Experimenting with Beethoven’s Music on YouTube and Facebook,” Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval 6, no. 1 (2023): 1–20, https://doi.org/10.5334/tismir.126.
F. Rahman and C. K. Mulyani, “Minimising Unnecessary Restrictions on Cross-Border Data Flows? Indonesia’s Position and Challenges Post Personal Data Protection Act Enactment,” Information & Communications Technology Law (2024), https://doi.org/10.1080/13600869.2024.2359901.
O. Rabinovich Einy and E. Katsh, “Technology and the Future of Dispute Systems Design,” International Journal of Online Dispute Resolution 2014, no. 1 (2014): 1–22, http://doi.org/10.1109/IJODR.2014.1.
M. Robles-Carrillo, “Digital Identity: Nature, Concept and Legal Framework,” International Journal of Law and Information Technology 32, no. 3 (2024): 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlit/eaae006.
M. Saeed, “Evidence in the Saudi Electronic Transaction System: Comparative Study with UNCITRAL Model Laws,” Academies’ Journal of Electronic Transactions (2018).
G. K. Salsabila, “Protection of Consumer Rights in Online Buying and Selling: Analysis of the DSN MUI Fatwa and Its Implementation in Sharia E-Commerce,” Saqifah Jurnal Hukum Ekonomi Syariah 10, no. 1 (2025): 13.
J. Sarabdeen and M. M. Ishak, “Compliance of Saudi Arabian Personal Data Protection Law 2021 to Islamic Principles of Privacy,” Migration Letters 21, no. 4 (2024): 726–737, https://doi.org/10.33182/ml.v21i4.7684.
F. Saurwein and C. Spencer-Smith, “Copyright Callouts and the Promise of Creator-Driven Platform Governance,” Internet Policy Review 13, no. 2 (2024): 1–24, https://doi.org/10.14763/2024.2.1770.
R. H. S. Sitorus, “The Validity of Electronic Signatures as Recognized in Electronic Transactions: A Review of Indonesian Law,” Eduvest Digital Repository (Edv Journal) (2024).
R. Stoykova, “The Right to a Fair Trial as a Conceptual Framework for Digital Evidence,” Computer Law & Security Review 49 (2023): 105868, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2023.105868.
J. Thumfart, “Digital Rights and the State of Exception: Internet Shutdowns and the Limits of Law,” Journal of Global Security Studies 9, no. 1 (2024): ogad024, https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogad024.
A. Trakic, R. Karim, and H. H. A. Tajuddin, “It Is Time to Recognize the Tort of Invasion of Privacy in Malaysia,” International Data Privacy Law 13, no. 4 (2023): 299–312, https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipad016.
D. Trithara, “Agents of Platform Governance: Analyzing U.S. Civil Society’s Role in Contesting Online Content Moderation,” Telecommunications Policy 48, no. 4 (2024): 102735, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2024.102735.
S. Ul Haq and R. Y.-k. Kwok, “Encountering ‘the Other’ in Religious Social Media: A Cross-Cultural Analysis,” Social Media + Society 10 (Oct–Dec 2024): 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051241303363.
A. Urman and M. Makhortykh, “How Transparent Are Transparency Reports? Comparative Analysis Across Online Platforms,” Telecommunications Policy 47, no. 3 (2023): 102477, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2022.102477.
J. van de Kerkhof, “Article 22 Digital Services Act: Building Trust with Trusted Flaggers,” Internet Policy Review 14, no. 1 (2025), https://doi.org/10.14763/2025.1.1828.
J. van de Kerkhof and C. Goanta, “Shadowbanned on X: The DSA in Action,” European Journal of Risk Regulation 16, no. 1 (2025): 352–359, https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2024.81.
M. Z. van Drunen and A. Noroozian, “How to Design Data Access for Researchers: A Legal and Software Development Perspective,” Computer Law & Security Review 52 (2024): 105946, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.105946.
B. Wagner, “Understanding Internet Shutdowns: A Case Study from Pakistan,” International Journal of Communication 12 (2018): 3917–3938.
X. Wang, Y. C. Wu, and Z. Ma, “Blockchain in the Courtroom: Exploring Its Evidentiary Significance and Procedural Implications in U.S. Judicial Processes,” Frontiers in Blockchain 7 (2024): 1306058, https://doi.org/10.3389/fbloc.2024.1306058.
A. Wibowo, W. Alawiyah, and Azriadi, “The Importance of Personal Data Protection in Indonesia’s Economic Development,” Cogent Social Sciences 10, no. 1 (2024): 2306751, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2024.2306751.
D. E. Wibowo and F. P. Disantara, “Consumer Protection in the Perspective of Islamic Law: The Principle of Dignified Justice,” Rechtidee 9, no. 1 (2023): 23–38, https://doi.org/10.24252/iqtisaduna.v7i2.22152.
R. Widian, P. A. N. I. P. Satya, and S. Yazid, “Religion in Indonesia’s Elections: An Implementation of a Populist Strategy?” Politics and Religion 16, no. 2 (2023): 351–373, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755048321000195.
V. Xynogalas and M. R. Leiser, “The Metaverse: Searching for Compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation,” International Data Privacy Law 14, no. 2 (2024): 89–105, https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipae004.
R. Yaya, I. M. Saud, M. K. Hassan, and M. Rashid, “Governance of Profit and Loss Sharing Financing in Achieving Socio-Economic Justice,” Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research 12, no. 6 (2021): 814–830, https://doi.org/10.1108/JIABR-11-2017-0161.
M. Yarif, “Blasphemy of Religion in Islamic Law (Juridical Analysis in Indonesia),” Transnational Universal Studies 1, no. 2 (2023): 83–92, https://doi.org/10.58631/jtus.v1i2.14.
L. Zou and D. Chen, “Using Blockchain Evidence in China’s Digital Copyright Legislation to Enhance the Sustainability of Legal Systems,” Systems 12, no. 9 (2024): 356, https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12090356
Downloads
Published
Versions
- 12/09/2025 (2)
- 12/09/2025 (1)
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 International Journal of Law and Social Science (IJLSS)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
